The Modern Girls: Japan’s Generation of Change
The Modern Girls: Japan’s Generation
of Change
The modernization of the world that began
during the industrial revolution slowly made its way across the word throughout
the end of the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century. The Modern
Girl or the Modern Woman was spreading throughout the world in the early
twentieth century. When Western culture made its way to Japan the young girls
no longer saw a need in their parents traditional ideals, they saw a freedom in
clothing and self-expression that had once been frowned upon. Women wanted the
right to vote, they wanted to work, and they wanted the ability to choose what
they were able to do with their lives. Yet in Japan the Modern Girl, also known
as modan gaaru or moga, became a
subject of concern from those who valued traditional roles. Japan as a country
wanted to preserve their national identity from industrialization while they
adapted to the change that was sweeping the world. When the Modern Girl began
to rise with the roaring twenties young women in Japan weren’t immune to the
change in culture. What made them different created a cultural backlash against
their wish for freedom. Yet they were able to become a cultural icon in their
own right and usher in a new era of women’s freedoms in their country that
included sexual freedoms which frightened their parents. Their power over the
change of the pre-war Japanese era drove fashion and change for women of the
country but also had a cultural impact on the future of Japanese women. What
the modern girl offered the Japanese people in the new century was faced with
both criticism and acceptance but it would also become the catalyst that would define
what the future generations of Japanese women would become in popular culture.
The rise of the modern girl would divide the country into those who embraced
the new generation versus those who disregarded it as something that would
bring the down fall of Japanese society, by looking at it from a historical
perspective it is easy to note that the rise of this generation would bring
forward a culture that would become Japanese in its own right through fashion,
cosmetics, and the café culture that has been embraced by the Japanese people. The
modern girl symbolized how the modernization of women in Japan lead to the fear
for the future of Japan’s national identity and the downfall of their pride in
their country.
After the death of Emperor Meiji in
1912 Japan ushered in the Taishō
Era, starting July 30th 1912 until December 25th 1926.
The Taishō Era was short in the
terms of Japan’s long history, but it was met with an industrial boom that came
with the First World War This drove the prices of goods up as well as demand
for what was offered, but it also placed a heavy burden on the country’s population
who suffered because of the rising prices. It was also a time period in which
placed Japan as a world power which earned them a seat in the League of
Nations. Japan’s reach in the Eastern Asian nations began to spread during this
time as they begin to invade neighboring nations. The people of Japan also
begin to demand equal rights but it is only given to men over the age of 25 in
1925. “Universal male suffrage
was established for men (not women) over 25 in 1925 and citizens' interest and
participation in Japanese politics and social activism increased. Pro-labor
laws were passed and generally the rights of workers were to improve until the
military crackdown in the 1930's.”[1] This period also brought
about one of the most devastating events in modern Japanese history, the Great
Kantō Earthquake, the earthquake
killed over 100,000 people and devastated Tokyo and its surrounding
prefectures. When the Taishō Era ended
Japan would enter the Shōwa Era and would also bring about the downfall of the
Japanese Empire that had risen in power during Taishō’s reign.
The rise of the Modern Girl began before
the Taishō Era as Japan began
modernizing but where each person stood in the slow changing era differed on
their sexual orientation. In Japanese
Fashion: A Cultural History, Toby Slade address the matter of where women
stood in the modernization of the country, “Women’s participation in the
project of modernization, was far thornier matter. In a favorite Meiji
formulation, the nation’s goal was the adaptation of Western technology to
preserve the Japanese spirit and the manifestation of this as clearly gendered.
For the average urban male, modernization was mandatory. But for
females—emblems of that native essence—Westernization was inherently problematic.
In the dispute over the fate of Japanese culture in the modern age, women’s
bodies and lives thus constituted ‘contested spaces’.”[2] Slade’s argument shows
that women weren’t meant for modernization in Japan they were supposed to
represent the national identity of Japan. While men were forced to modernize in
order to fit into the ideal of the rising world power. These ideals were closer
to the European beliefs during the Victorian Era in which patriarchy gave power
to men over women. Slade further argues,
Figure
2: Japanese
Traditional and Modern Women of the 1920-1930's
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The argument of the traditional woman over the new
modern woman was something that wasn’t only occurring in Japan but throughout
the world. The difference from what was happening overseas and Japan was that
they were desperate to hold onto these ideals even when they couldn’t slow the
consumer culture that had taken hold.
This
young woman became a part of the rising influx of Western culture in Japan and
they had made their impact as swiftly as their Western counterparts. Miriam
Silverberg’s essay “After the Grand Tour: The Modern Girl, the
New Woman, and the Colonial Maiden,” describes the brief appearance of the
Modern Girl of this era, “The modern girl, makes only a brief appearance in our
histories of prewar Japan. She is a glistering, decadent, middle-class consumer
who, through her clothing, smoking and drinking, flaunts tradition in the urban
playgrounds of the late 1920s. Arm in arm with her male equivalent, the mobo (Modern Boy) and fleshed out in the
Western flapper’s garb of the roaring twenties, she engages in ginbura
(Ginza-crushing).”[4]
Silverberg’s assessment brings forth the similarities of the Modern Japanese
Girl to the Flappers of the Western World. This shows that Western culture has
taken root in Japan and given these women a sense of freedom that they hadn’t
known. They could go out and enjoy themselves the same way as men, they could
indulge in the freedoms of being a liberated woman like the women of western
cultures such as the feminist culture that had swept through the United States
and England. They were new and for those who valued the traditional values of
Japan, “The modern girl in Japan was celebrated and feared mainly for her new
sexuality.”[5]
The modern girl ushered in a fear that would bring about fear in those who saw
them as a threat and they were regarded by those who saw them as a commodity
that they would be able to use in order to gain something that they hadn’t had
before.
Figure
3: 1930's
Shiseido Advertisement
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“The
identity of the Modern Girl is based on her awareness that she may have always
fashioned herself with a similar cosmopolitan “Modern Girl look.” As a marker
of capitalist modernity, she was an advertising icon suffusing once banal
objects with an intense aura and occupying new social thought through the
positions she took in advertisements. I would add to this that what the
Japanese Modern Girl expressed in her own inimitable style was sometimes
historically repressed or could be appropriated for different ideological ends,
just as her magic, sensual touch was used to animate all sorts of commodities.
This seems common in many places where Modern Girls wrapped themselves in
bright colors, painted their faces, as they discarded all semblance of
propriety and fixed racial identity of hierarchy, prowling not so much in
search of boys but pleasure seeking in their masquerade, as Modern Girls.”[7]
Many
of the new fashion styles rising from the 1920’s broke away from the norms of
restrictive clothing for women. They had more of a flowy base without the extra
fabrics that had been normal during the nineteenth century. For Japanese women
they were no longer restricted to the long process that would come with wearing
a kimono, or the tight uncomfortable hairstyles that they would have to put up
each day, “having shed her “shapeless, unbecoming kimono” (the description is
Tanizaki’s) in favor of “Western clothes” that “accentuate every curve and
hollow, give her body a brilliant surface and lively flowing lines.”[8] Now they were free to cut
their hair and wear clothes that were no longer a part of the traditional world
they had once lived in.
Another aspect brought forth by
these middle-class citizens was that they were a part of a consumer culture
that took in foreign style. Where they socialized was also Western based,
Michael Hoffman’s article in The Japan Times, “The Taisho Era: When modernity
ruled Japan’s masses,” addressed the culture of the Modern Japanese Youth, “Where
did mobo and moga hang out? Most typically, in the new European-style cafes
springing up here, there and just about everywhere, especially in the Ginza,
Tokyo’s little Europe. The first one opened in 1911 (coffeehouses, quite
different, had been around for a generation); by 1939, nationwide, they
numbered 37,000. To the cafes streamed mobo and moga and all their various
sub-species.”[9]
Their hang out wasn’t only there for them to socialize many young women were
employed in many of the places they frequented. Instead of following the
traditional route of marrying after they finished school they sought employment
as café waitresses, hostesses, dancers and shop girls to name a few. The Modern
Girl was two different people in the eyes of many, “On the one hand, she came
to symbolize the sexual and social decadence typified by the café hostess, the
prostitute, and the unfaithful wife. On the other hand, she projected an image
that overlapped with that of the professional working woman, and thus became a
sign of fundamental change in the tenor of everyday life.”[10] The changes from the
professional working woman that started during this time would create another
aspect of the Modern Girl during the post-war Japanese Era known as the Office
Lady, or OL, who did all of the office tasks in a professional environment.
Most of what came out of the Modern girl that would be considered positive
wouldn’t be attributed to these young women. This process added “another layer
to the already multilayered identities that Japanese women consciously and
unconsciously adopted. By buying into ideas, even if they could not afford the
actual commodities, urban women were redefining the modern, encoded in figures
like the modern girl, self-motivated middle-class housewife and professional
working woman.”[11]
What the Modern Girl did in the Taisho Era and early Showa Era changed how
women in the years after would live in the world.
Just as there were those who
embraced this change in young women who created their new identity, there were
other’s that feared the sweeping changes overtaking the new generation of young
women and changing Japanese society. There was a general fear from the older
generation of how heathenistic these women were becoming. “A child as Taisho dawned would have had grandparents
molded by the Edo Period (1603-1867), living symbols of how startlingly Japan
had changed within living memory… Between Edo and Taisho stood the stern and
patriarchal Meiji Era (1868-1912), surely one of the most energetic regimes in
world history.”[12] In the time between the
Edo and the Meiji Eras the United States opened its closed borders to the world
and laid forward a long list of treaties to keep Japan from closing themselves
off from the world. From this the country slowly modernized but these two
generations would be the opposition for the Modern Girl because as her parents
and grand-parents they still believed in the traditional views of old world
Japan.
“Youth
in general, and young women in particular, were another lightning rod for the
fears of modernity run rampant. Even as some celebrated the jaunty figure of
the modern girl, others worried that she signaled the onset of far-reaching
social decay. They feared that liberated women, perhaps even more than angry
schoolteachers or militant laborers, might upset the established order of
society and weaken the Japanese state. Anxious press reports described modern
girls and boys as part of a communist conspiracy to weaken the nation by
turning privileged youths into degenerate hedonists. They worried that the rise
of divorces initiated by women would destroy the family system. In 1925 the
press described a short-haired, Western-dressed woman accused of murdering a
foreigner as a “vanguard moga.” Such
labeling suggested that the modern girl, in particular, was un-Japanese and
even criminal.”[13]
The
fear of the Modern children of the pre-modern families were that their
traditional lives before the United States and the nationalistic pride of the
Japanese was in danger. The fear was mainly based in how their daughters left
the home and went to work instead of marrying, or the influx of Western culture
coming into the country as their children emulated the Western World.
Writers began to write about the
dangers of having a daughter that is a Modern Girl, the sole reason was that
they thought her a scornful woman who takes advantage of her sexuality and her
ability to seduce men. It was noticeable that the Modern Boys weren’t subjected
to the same scrutiny as the girls because the young women were just stepping
away from a patriarchal society in which the boys already had the power. Since
young women ran cafés they could seduce men without having to live by the
traditional style such as courtesans or geisha’s who worked under one house and
had to serves as entertainment. Café women had more control over what happened
within their own shops. For those who opposed the Modern Girl this was a
lifestyle in which they opposed for their daughters and wives. “Unease
continued in the excited discussion, mainly by male writers, of the figure
identified as the “modern girl.” She embodied the exhilaration of Japanese
modern times and captured much popular attention from about 1925 through the
early 1930s. The modern girl was said to be something new in Japan.”[14]
This embodiment brought forth writers such
as Junichiro Tanizaki who wrote the 1925 novel Naomi, in which the story’s protagonist is enthralled with a Modern
Girl and wishes to change her into an educated young woman. Naomi is underage
when he meets her, she’s fifteen at the time and he is twenty-eight years old,
and he believes that he can use this to his advantage by creating the perfect
wife that is nothing like the modern girls running around during the time. The
main protagonist, Joji, has fears about relationships between men and women
that had begun to manifest from childhood when during a class the teacher
taught them about Antony and Cleopatra,
Figure
4: Naomi Cover
Image
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Love
for him was a frightful affair and he avoided it as much as he could because he
feared a love like Antony and Cleopatra. As a working man he lived a modest
life, he had a home and didn’t worry about whether he offended anyone but Joji
wanted something more. The lesson on Antony and Cleopatra was used in the novel
to outline the future of his relationship with Naomi, since Joji is telling the
story as though it were a memory of what happened and how he ended up in the
life he did because of his love for a Modern Girl. He believed that Naomi was
different from the traditional girl, she was outspoken and alive, “Naomi exceeded the bounds of mere liveliness; she was
too rough in everything she did. Her speech, supercilious and lacking in
feminine gentleness, was often vulgar. In short she was a wild animal.”[16]
She was a tomboy, and had friends that were both male and female, although the
majority of them were male, in his eyes she was the best person to mold into
what he wanted as an ideal wife. With her mother’s permission he married her
but didn’t have any kind of sexual relations with her until she was of proper
age, until that time came he had her schooled on proper etiquette and education
so that she would be a worldly woman.
The
story was one of grooming for Joji but behind the scenes, when he would leave
for work Naomi was becoming the Modern Girl, the free spirit and a sexual
being. Her outside relationships with her male friends slowly began to create a
divide with Joji although he wouldn’t separate from her. After he realized
about her relations with others Joji’s reaction wasn’t one of scorn, “Naomi and
I talked in bed that night as though nothing had happened; but to tell the
truth, I hadn’t been able to put it out of my mind completely. She was no
longer chaste: not only did this thought cast a dark shadow over my heart; but
it also lowered the value of Naomi, who’d been my treasure, by more than half.”[17]
He’d only seen her as a piece of property as the wife he wanted but not in the
way that is common in which love is involved by both parties. Naomi was no
longer valuable to him but he still wanted to keep her. As she grew up she
became more alluring and began taking multiple relationships by the time the
two of them separated he was frightened by her lack of regret and her I don’t
care attitude on how she can so easily go from one man’s bed to another’s.
Andrew
Lee a staff writer for The Japan Times writes that “The best hint of what
“Naomi” by Junichiro Tanizaki is about is its Japanese title “Chijin no Ai,”
(“A Fool’s Love”).”[18]
The title changed in its English translation to Naomi which loses its power and
turns it into the story of how a twenty-eight year old man falls for a Lolita
type of character who is fifteen when they meet. The novel is trying to show
the appeal of the Western World in Japan as well as trying to show the appeal
of a western girl. The novel had become a hot topic in Japan, splitting everyone
on their views of the Modern Girl. Lee brings this forth in his article saying,
“Desiring her was something that made men like Joji uneasy and excited at the
same time, which was much like the Japan’s fetish for modernization in the
early 1900s. They knew they needed it, but at what cost?”[19]
The cost for those opposing the Modern Girl was the loss of national identity
that these girls would be lost to the generation of western fetish and the country
would lose everything. Joji’s fetish wasn’t for something Western but for the
chance to control the outcome of who Naomi would become when she grew up, by
exposing her to the lifestyle of the Modern Girl but restricting her ability to
act on the same desires as the other women around her made Naomi try to create
her own freedom.
The arguments of where
did the Modern Girl fit into the mold was constantly questioned. In “The Modern
Girl as Militant” Silverberg brings up the point of where the Modern Girl
stands in the face of the criticism about their adoption of Western culture
writing, “Was the Japanese Modern Girl Japanese? Europeanized? Cosmopolitan? To
the artist Kishida Ryusei, who defined the short-haired Modern Girl by her
body, clothing, and rapid style of walking on Ginza, she was all of the above.
While she appeared for the most part in Japanese-style clothing, the face of
this beauty, originally that of a Japanese person, has been harmonized to
become, in a most natural fashion, a Western-style face.”[20] Silverberg
is pointing out that even though the Modern Girl has adopted Western styles
they are still Japanese. For the novel Naomi
the female character had begun her life in a situation that allowed her mother
to agree to the union with Joji further idealizes a culture in which a man has
control over a woman. A westernized woman is not as controllable as a
traditional woman and so Naomi and Joji’s relationship fails due to his
misconceptions of the modern girl’s influence.
The
two sides of the argument also brought about the harassment as well as the
welcoming of what this meant for the future of Japan. Michael Dunn’s article
for the Japan Times Culture section, “Modern girls and outrage,” addresses the
two sides as well as the positives of the Modern Girl in Japan versus the
traditional woman. Dunn states that the “Moga, and the denizens
of the cafe society generally, had to defend themselves against frequent
charges of not being “properly Japanese,” and were held for comparison against
the idealized, kimono-wearing, subservient housewife who stood for all that was
proper in family life. Popular magazines came out with arguments on all sides,
and even the government — with military values in mind — began to eulogize the
new, healthy-looking young woman who could swim and play tennis. The
traditional woman was therefore gradually remodeled, and the “compound bijin”
(beauty) appeared, who was just as comfortable in traditional kimono as in the
latest Western fashions.”[21] For those who were still
set against the Modern Girl’s rise they believed that Western materialism was
the reasons behind the rise of these girls,
“They
lost sight of their true essence as a classless community living in harmony
under a benevolent emperor. By the 1920s, this argument went, the nation was
marked by crass profit-seeking and hedonism, emblematized in “modern girls” and
American movies, in fast living (supiido)
and eroticism. Remarkably enough, given the commercialism and ribald character
of so much of Tokugawa popular culture, these trends were usually described
simply as Western cultural invasions, in particular the poisonous output of the
United States. American democracy was condemned as a sleight of hand that
satisfied the ignorant masses with trivial goods.”[22]
They
would be split on the topic for the years to come as Japan began to user in the
Showa Era after the fall of the Tashio Era. The Modern Girl would only last
until the imperialistic effort of Japan took place and Western cultures were no
longer the poison that many had thought it once was.
What the modern girl signified in
Japan was the end of an era of women, the patriarchal era in which the rest of
the world had been a part of. Like the children of the Meiji Era were a part of
change for those of the Edo period. Everything changes and with these changes
bring new challenges. As each generation took hold they brought new challenges
for their parents who lived in the previous generation. The Modern Girls grew
up and became mothers, many would have children that would grow up in the next
era of change. Those who grew up in the Post-War Japan would become a different
kind of Modern Girls, the baby boomers, who would give birth to the hippie
generation and so on. Each generation would continue to bring their parents
their own share of grief. Dunn’s article “From sexual Liberation to liberation
from sex” addresses the social changes and how parents become their own
parents, “Young people are forever shocking their elders, and elders, however
shocking they themselves may have been to their own elders once upon a time,
never fail to play their generation’s perennial role of shocked onlookers to
shocking youthful behavior of one sort or another.”[23]
Figure 5:
21st Century Vintage Japanese Street Fashion in Harajuku
|
What the Modern Girl of the 1920’s and 1930’s brought to
Japan was in part social change, they took out the old systems in which girls
were to act in a precise manner and brought forth a liberation of their own
lives. Their changes echo those of all women in the early twentieth century
that sought social change for their own rights. In Japan the repercussions of
this change are felt though each generation that would come in the decades
afterward. Novels, music, and movies would document these changes. The first
Modern Girl would be ushered like the Jazz babies of the Western world, each
generation would mirror a social change that was occurring throughout the
world. All of the changes that occurred in women’s history began with the
suffrage movement and although each country dealt with these changes in a
different way for the girls of Japan these changes were partly connected to
outside influences. Yet those influences would also create different views for
each generation as they passed along. Today’s Modern Girls are their own
creation and the next would only take the positives with them that were brought
forth by the previous generation.
Bibliography
Bernstein,
Gail Lee. Recreating Japanese Women, 1600-1945. London, England: University of
California Press, 1991.
Dunn,
Michael. “Modern girls and outrage” available from
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2007/05/10/arts/modern-girls-and-outrage/#.WEM8HjX-VOU;
accessed 30 November 2016.
-------------,
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accessed 30 November 2016.
Gordon,
Andrew. A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa times to the Present.
Third ed.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
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of Japan – Taisho and Early Showa Period 1912-1945” available from
http://www.japanvisitor.com/japanese-culture/history/taisho-japan-history;
accessed 25 November 2016.
Hoffman,
Michael. "From Sexual Liberation to Liberation from Sex | The Japan
Times."
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/01/16/national/media-national/sexual-liberation-liberation-sex/#.VyaD3Ef-VOU;
accessed 25 November 2016.
Hoffman,
Michael. “The Taisho Era: When modernity ruled Japan’s masses” available from
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accessed 25 November 2016.
Lee,
Andrew. “Naomi” available from
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2013/12/14/books/book-reviews/naomi/#.WEM4BTX-VOU;
accessed 30 November 2016.
Sato,
Barbara. The New Japanese Woman:
Modernity, Media, and Women in Interwar Japan.
Durham and London; Duke University Press,
2003.
Slade,
Toby. Japanese Fashion: A Cultural History. New York, NY: Berg, 2009.
Silverberg,
Miriam. "After the Grand Tour: The Modern Girl, the New Woman, and the
Colonial
Maiden."
In The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and
Globalization, edited by Alys Eve Weinbaum, Lynn M. Thomas, Priti
Ramamurthy, Uta G. Poiger, Madeleine Yue Dong, and Tani E. Barlow, 354-61.
Durham/London: Duke University Press, 2008.
-------------.“The
Modern Girl as Militant.” In Recreating Japanese Women, 1600-1945,
edited
by Gail Bernstein, 239-266. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
Tanizaki,
Jun'ichirō. Naomi. Trans. Anthony H. Chambers. New York: Vintage, 2001.
[1] “History of Japan
– Taisho and Early Showa Period 1912-1945” available from
http://www.japanvisitor.com/japanese-culture/history/taisho-japan-history.
[2] Toby Slade, Japanese Fashion: A Cultural History
(New York, NY: Berg, 2009), 51.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Miriam
Silverberg, “After the Grand
Tour: The Modern Girl, the New Woman, and the Colonial Maiden,” in The Modern
Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization, , edited by
Alys Eve Weinbaum, Lynn M. Thomas, Priti Ramamurthy, Uta G. Poiger, Madeleine
Yue Dong, and Tani E. Barlow(Durham/London: Duke University Press, 2008), 354.
[5] Andrew Gordon, A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa
Times to the Present (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2014), 157.
[6] Ibid, 139.
[7] Miriam
Silverberg, “After the Grand
Tour: The Modern Girl, the New Woman, and the Colonial Maiden,” in The Modern
Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization, 355.
[8] Michael Hoffman,
“The Taisho Era: When modernity ruled Japan’s masses” available from
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2012/07/29/general/the-taisho-era-when-modernity-ruled-japans-masses/#.WEL84jX-VOW
[9] Michael Hoffman,
“The Taisho Era: When modernity ruled Japan’s masses” available from
[10] Barbara Sato, The New Japanese Woman: Modernity, Media,
and Women in Interwar Japan (Durham and London; Duke University Press,
2003), 10.
[11] Ibid
[12] Michael Hoffman,
“The Taisho Era: When modernity ruled Japan’s masses”.
[13] Andrew Gordon, A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa
Times to the Present, 158.
[14] Ibid, 155.
[15] Junichiro
Tanizaki, Naomi. (New York, NY; Vintage, 2001), 49-50.
[16] Ibid, 92.
[17] Ibid, 161.
[18] Andrew Lee,
“Naomi” available from
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2013/12/14/books/book-reviews/naomi/#.WEM4BTX-VOU
[19] Ibid.
[20] Miriam
Silverberg, “The Modern Girl as Militant”. Recreating
Japanese Women, 1600-1945. (Berkeley; University of California Press,
1991), 244.
[21] Michael Dunn,
“Modern girls and outrage” available from http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2007/05/10/arts/modern-girls-and-outrage/#.WEM8HjX-VOU
[22] Andrew Gordon, A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa
Times to the Present, 217.
[23] Michael Dunn,
“From sexual liberation to liberation from sex,” available from
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/01/16/national/media-national/sexual-liberation-liberation-sex/#.WELo7jX-VOV
[24] Ibid
[25] Andrew Gordon, A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa
Times to the Present, 314.
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